-independence from French Republic won in 1822

-took over after long series of events

-took over whole island after invading south under rigaud, then invading spanish part

-instituted system of serfdom, proved unpopular but nevertheless sugar production almost recovered

-established rural police to force people back on plantations

-plantations ruled by new black elite

-series of rebellions occurred, but he crushed them all

-confirmed as governor-general by French Republic

-nice profits, potential of british war, kept them from overthrowing toussaint

-sons were trained in colonial school, later returned

-sent delegates to france, usually they were political opponents who he kept from returning

-constructed infrastructure system, better than when haiti was colony

-established public school system, trained new black elite

-corrupt and unpopular administration

-finally died in 1821

-unpopular, viewed as louverture's enforcer

-caused new chaos

-france sent fleet to impose its choice for governor-general

-but British Isles destroyed it, viewing it as invasion force of jamaica and using as excuse for war, resulting in French Wars > Second French War (1821-32)

-britain then invaded saint-domingue

-dessalines views this as betrayal from france, declares independence of haiti

-fought british invasion force good, numbers of it quickly dwindled due to yellow fever

-famously some irish soldiers defected, dessalines declared the irish the "white negroes of europe"

-o'connell, clarkson criticized british invasion

-but eventually british force was pushed out

-dessalines continued plantation system, serfdom

-prepared for invasion, created forts, moved cities inland

-eventually assassinated

-continued dessalines' policies for most part

-prepared for invasion he felt was inevitable

-reconstruction efforts occurred

-french invasion of haiti in 1830, occupation of cap haitien and port republicain

-but french forces repulsed from invading closer, eventually they retreat by 1832

-without war effort geffrard faced increasing dissatisfaction for land policy, overthrown and forced into exile

-took over, despite being mulatto was aligned more with blacks

-saw writing on the wall and broke up plantations to create nation of smallholders

-attempted to negotiate recognition with france, failed due to it asking for big indemity

-saw diminishing revenues, attempted to resolve this by recruiting black american migration to work on state land

-but instead many of them moved to cities, he brought even more to attract them to plantations

-brought in javanese indentured labourers after expiry of contracts, not enough came

-nevertheless they intermarried with locals, creating "paranaque" ethnic group

-some success achieved, but sugar revenues still low, coffee proved foundation of economy

-created "americain" social class in cities different from mulatto and black elites, endogamy due to protestantism

-state owned land being a "checkerboard" relative to alienated land resulted in state negotiation to make whole state lands

-property laws were rewritten to allow easy alienation

-cut size of military, established presidential guard

-created national bank, invested in infrastructure and education a lot

-declared himself president for life, weakened legislature

-dictatorship established

-but dissatisfaction grew over time, educated class protested dictatorship and muzzling of press increasingly

-ultimately overthrown

-promulgated new constitution

-renegotiated autonomy of spanish-speaking east, granted spanish haiti far reaching autonomy

-established local democracy, primary assemblies

-representations of various interests - black elite, mulatto elite, some americains

-faces illegitimacy issues for being mulatto

-helped to create constitutional government, though democracy is lacking

-military cut down in size

-faces off coup attempts successfully, helped by presidential guard

-reduction in coffee prices sparked by meridia becoming independent, results in loss in confidence

-defeated in 1857 election, forced out of office by legislative assembly

-attempt to hold on to power stopped when presidential guard defects

1864-1864: xxxxx

1864-1864: xxxxx

1864-1865: xxxxx

1865-1866: xxxxx

1866-1866: xxxxx

1866-1869: xxxxx

1869-1872: xxxxx

1872-1874: xxxxx

1874-1879: xxxxx

1879-1893: xxxxx

1893-1899: xxxxx

1899-1911: xxxxx